UA.II.A.K3 - Other airspace areas, such as Airport Advisory Services, Military Training Routes (MTRs), Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs), Parachute Jump Operations, Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSAs), National Security Areas (NSA) and Visual Flight Rules (VFR) routes

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

“Other airspace areas” is a general term referring to the majority of the remaining airspace. It includes:

- Local airport advisory (LAA)

- Military Training Route (MTR)

- Temporary Flight Restriction (TFR)

- Parachute jump aircraft operations

- Published VFR Routes

- Terminal radar service area (TRSA)

- National Security Area (NSA)

- Air Defense Identification Zones (ADIZ) land and water based and need for Defense VFR (DVFR) flight plan to operate in this airspace

- Flight Restricted Zones (FRZ) in vicinity of Capitol and White House

- Wildlife Areas/Wilderness Areas/National Parks and request to operate above 2,000 AGL

- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Marine Areas off the coast with requirement to operate above 2,000 AGL

- Tethered Balloons for observation and weather recordings that extend on cables up to 60,000

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Local airport advisory (LAA): An advisory service provided by Flight Service facilities, which are located on the landing airport, using a discrete ground-to-air communication frequency or the tower frequency when the tower is closed. LAA services include local airport advisories, automated weather reporting with voice broadcasting, and a continuous Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS)/ Automated Weather Observing Stations (AWOS) data display, other continuous direct reading instruments, or manual observations available to the specialist.

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Military Training Routes (MTRs) are routes used by military aircraft to maintain proficiency in tactical flying. These routes are usually established below 10,000 feet MSL for operations at speeds in excess of 250 knots. Some route segments may be defined at higher altitudes for purposes of route continuity. Routes are identified as IFR (IR), and VFR (VR), followed by a number. [Figure 14-7] MTRs with no segment above 1,500 feet AGL are identified by four number characters (e.g., IR1206, VR1207). MTRs that include one or more segments above 1,500 feet AGL are identified by three number characters (e.g., IR206, VR207). IFR low altitude en route charts depict all IR routes and all VR routes that accommodate operations above 1,500 feet AGL. IR routes are conducted in accordance with IFR regardless of weather conditions. VFR sectional charts depict military training activities such as IR, VR, MOA, restricted area, warning area, and alert area information.

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Parachute jump aircraft operations are published in the Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)). Sites that are used frequently are depicted on sectional charts.

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Published VFR routes are for transitioning around, under, or through some complex airspace. Terms such as VFR flyway, VFR corridor, Class B airspace VFR transition route, and terminal area VFR route have been applied to such routes. These routes are generally found on VFR terminal area planning charts.

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Terminal radar service areas (TRSAs) are areas where participating pilots can receive additional radar services. The purpose of the service is to provide separation between all IFR operations and participating VFR aircraft.

The primary airport(s) within the TRSA become(s) Class D airspace. The remaining portion of the TRSA overlies other controlled airspace, which is normally Class E airspace beginning at 700 or 1,200 feet and established to transition to/from the en route/terminal environment. TRSAs are depicted on VFR sectional charts and terminal area charts with a solid black line and altitudes for each segment. The Class D portion is charted with a blue segmented line. Participation in TRSA services is voluntary; however, pilots operating under VFR are encouraged to contact the radar approach control and take advantage of TRSA service.

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

National Security Areas (NSAs) consist of airspace of defined vertical and lateral dimensions established at locations where there is a requirement for increased security and safety of ground facilities. Flight in NSAs may be temporarily prohibited by regulation under the provisions of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 99, and prohibitions are disseminated via NOTAM. Pilots are requested to voluntarily avoid flying through these depicted areas.

UA.II.A.K4 - Air Traffic Control (ATC) and the National Airspace System (NAS)

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

The primary purpose of the ATC system is to prevent a collision between aircraft operating in the system and to organize and expedite the flow of traffic. In addition to its primary function, the ATC system has the capability to provide (with certain limitations) additional services. The ability to provide additional services is limited by many factors, such as the volume of traffic, frequency congestion, quality of radar, controller workload, higher priority duties, and the pure physical inability to scan and detect those situations that fall in this category. It is recognized that these services cannot be provided in cases in which the provision of services is precluded by the above factors.

Consistent with the aforementioned conditions, controllers shall provide additional service procedures to the extent permitted by higher priority duties and other circumstances. The provision of additional services is not optional on the part of the controller, but rather is required when the work situation permits. Provide ATC service in accordance with the procedures and minima in this order except when:

1. A deviation is necessary to conform with ICAO Documents, National Rules of the Air, or special agreements where the United States provides ATC service in airspace outside the country and its possessions or:

2. Other procedures/minima are prescribed in a letter of agreement, FAA directive, or a military document, or:

3. A deviation is necessary to assist an aircraft when an emergency has been declared.

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Coordinating the Use of Airspace: ATC is responsible for ensuring that the necessary coordination has been accomplished before allowing an aircraft under their control to enter another controller’s area of jurisdiction.

Before issuing control instructions directly or relaying through another source to an aircraft which is within another controller’s area of jurisdiction that will change that aircraft’s heading, route, speed, or altitude, ATC ensures that coordination has been accomplished with each of the controllers listed below whose area of jurisdiction is affected by those instructions unless otherwise specified by a letter of agreement or a facility directive:

1. The controller within whose area of jurisdiction the control instructions are issued.

2. The controller receiving the transfer of control.

3. Any intervening controller(s) through whose area of jurisdiction the aircraft will pass.

If ATC issues control instructions to an aircraft through a source other than another controller (e.g., Aeronautical Radio, Incorporated (ARINC), Automated Flight Service Station/Flight Service Station (AFSS/FSS), another pilot) they ensure that the necessary coordination has been accomplished with any controllers listed above, whose area of jurisdiction is affected by those instructions unless otherwise specified by a letter of agreement or a facility directive.

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Operating in the Various Types of Airspace: It is important that pilots be familiar with the operational requirements for each of the various types or classes of airspace. Subsequent sections cover each class in sufficient detail to facilitate understanding with regard to weather, type of pilot certificate held, as well as equipment required.

UA.II.B.K1 - Basic weather minimums

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Basic VFR Weather Minimums

No pilot may operate an aircraft under basic VFR when the flight visibility is less, or at a distance from clouds that is less, than that prescribed for the corresponding altitude and class of airspace. [Figure 14-9] Except as provided in 14 CFR Section 91.157, Special VFR Weather Minimums, no person may operate an aircraft beneath the ceiling under VFR within the lateral boundaries of controlled airspace designated to the surface for an airport when the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet. Additional information can be found in 14 CFR section 91.155(c).

Remote pilot sUAS study guide 

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements

The safety of flight is a top priority of all pilots and the responsibilities associated with operating an aircraft should always be taken seriously. The air traffic system maintains a high degree of safety and efficiency with strict regulatory oversight of the FAA. Pilots fly in accordance with regulations that have served the United States well, as evidenced by the fact that the country has the safest aviation system in the world.

All aircraft operating in today’s National Airspace System (NAS) has complied with the CFR governing its certification and maintenance; all pilots operating today have completed rigorous pilot certification training and testing. Of equal importance is the proper execution of preflight planning, aeronautical decision-making (ADM) and risk management. ADM involves a systematic approach to risk assessment and stress management in aviation, illustrates how personal attitudes can influence decision-making, and how those attitudes can be modified to enhance safety in the flight deck. More detailed information regarding ADM and risk mitigation can be found in Chapter 17, Aeronautical Decision-Making.

Pilots also comply with very strict FAA general operating and flight rules as outlined in the CFR, including the FAA’s important “see and avoid” mandate. These regulations provide the historical foundation of the FAA regulations governing the aviation system and the individual classes of airspace. Figure 14-10 lists the operational and equipment requirements for these various classes of airspace. It will be helpful to refer to this figure as the specific classes are discussed in greater detail.

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Class A

Pilots operating an aircraft in Class A airspace must conduct that operation under IFR and only under an ATC clearance received prior to entering the airspace. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each aircraft operating in Class A airspace must be equipped with a two-way radio capable of communicating with ATC on a frequency assigned by ATC. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, all aircraft within Class A airspace must be equipped with the appropriate transponder equipment meeting all applicable specifications found in 14 CFR section 91.215.

Class B

All pilots operating an aircraft within a Class B airspace area must receive an ATC clearance from the ATC facility having jurisdiction for that area. The pilot in command (PIC) may not take off or land an aircraft at an airport within a Class B airspace unless he or she has met one of the following requirements:

1. A private pilot certificate.

2. A recreational pilot certificate and all requirements contained within 14 CFR section 61.101(d), or the requirements for a student pilot seeking a recreational pilot certificate in 14 CFR section 61.94.

3. A sport pilot certificate and all requirements contained within 14 CFR section 61.325, or the requirements for a student pilot seeking a recreational pilot certificate in 14 CFR section 61.94, or the aircraft is operated by a student pilot who has met the requirements of 14 CFR sections 61.94 and 61.95, as applicable.

Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, all aircraft within Class B airspace must be equipped with the applicable operating transponder and automatic altitude reporting equipment specified in 14 CFR section 91.215(a) and an operable two-way radio capable of communications with ATC on appropriate frequencies for that Class B airspace area.

Class C

For the purpose of this section, the primary airport is the airport for which the Class C airspace area is designated. A satellite airport is any other airport within the Class C airspace area. No pilot may take off or land an aircraft at a satellite airport within a Class C airspace area except in compliance with FAA arrival and departure traffic patterns.

Two-way radio communications must be established and maintained with the ATC facility providing air traffic services prior to entering the airspace and thereafter maintained while within the airspace.

A pilot departing from the primary airport or satellite airport with an operating control tower must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with the control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC while operating in the Class C airspace area. If departing from a satellite airport without an operating control tower, the pilot must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the Class C airspace area as soon as practicable after departing.

Unless otherwise authorized by the ATC having jurisdiction over the Class C airspace area, all aircraft within Class C airspace must be equipped with the appropriate transponder equipment meeting all applicable specifications found in 14 CFR section 91.215.

Class D

No pilot may take off or land an aircraft at a satellite airport within a Class D airspace area except in compliance with FAA arrival and departure traffic patterns. A pilot departing from the primary airport or satellite airport with an operating control tower must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with the control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC while operating in the Class D airspace area. If departing from a satellite airport without an operating control tower, the pilot must establish and maintain two-way radio communications with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the Class D airspace area as soon as practicable after departing.

Two-way radio communications must be established and maintained with the ATC facility providing air traffic services prior to entering the airspace and thereafter maintained while within the airspace.

If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR, the pilot should continue the flight by the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received; or, if being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of radio failure to the fix, route, or airway specified in the vector clearance. In the absence of an assigned route, the pilot should continue by the route that ATC advised may be expected in a further clearance; or, if a route had not been advised, by the route filed in the flight plan.

If the aircraft radio fails in flight under VFR, the PIC may operate that aircraft and land if weather conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums, visual contact with the tower is maintained, and a clearance to land is received.

Class E

Unless otherwise required by 14 CFR part 93 or unless otherwise authorized or required by the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the Class E airspace area, each pilot operating an aircraft on or in the vicinity of an airport in a Class E airspace area must comply with the requirements of Class G airspace. Each pilot must also comply with any traffic patterns established for that airport in 14 CFR part 93.

Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft to, from, through, or on an airport having an operational control tower unless two-way radio communications are maintained between that aircraft and the control tower. Communications must be established prior to four nautical miles from the airport, up to and including 2,500 feet AGL. However, if the aircraft radio fails in flight, the PIC may operate that aircraft and land if weather conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums, visual contact with the tower is maintained, and a clearance to land is received.

If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR, the pilot should continue the flight by the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received; or, if being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of radio failure to the fix, route, or airway specified in the vector clearance. In the absence of an assigned route, the pilot should continue by the route that ATC advised may be expected in a further clearance; or, if a route had not been advised, by the route filed in the flight plan.

Class G

When approaching to land at an airport without an operating control tower in Class G airspace:

1. Each pilot of an airplane must make all turns of that airplane to the left unless the airport displays approved light signals or visual markings indicating that turns should be made to the right, in which case the pilot must make all turns to the right.

2. Each pilot of a helicopter or a powered parachute must avoid the flow of fixed-wing aircraft.

Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft to, from, through, or on an airport having an operational control tower unless two-way radio communications are maintained between that aircraft and the control tower. Communications must be established prior to four nautical miles from the airport, up to and including 2,500 feet AGL. However, if the aircraft radio fails in flight, the pilot in command may operate that aircraft and land if weather conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums, visual contact with the tower is maintained, and a clearance to land is received.

If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR, the pilot should continue the flight by the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received; or, if being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of radio failure to the fix, route, or airway specified in the vector clearance. In the absence of an assigned route, the pilot should continue by the route that ATC advised may be expected in a further clearance; or, if a route had not been advised, by the route filed in the flight plan.

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Ultralight Vehicles

No person may operate an ultralight vehicle within Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace or within the lateral boundaries of the surface area of Class E airspace designated for an airport unless that person has prior authorization from the ATC facility having jurisdiction over that airspace. (See 14 CFR part 103.)

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Uncrewed Free Balloons

Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person may operate an uncrewed free balloon below 2,000 feet above the surface within the lateral boundaries of Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace designated for an airport. (See 14 CFR part 101.)

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Parachute Jumps

No person may make a parachute jump, and no PIC may allow a parachute jump to be made from that aircraft, in or into Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace without, or in violation of, the terms of an ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the airspace. (See 14 CFR part 105.)

Other related airspace chart symbology

Sarah Nilsson, J.D., Ph.D., MAS

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